Fluoroscopy

Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique commonly used by physicians to obtain real-time images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an absorbed dose to the patient. Recent advances include the digitization of the images captured and flat-panel detector systems which reduce the radiation dose to the patient still further.

History

The beginning of fluoroscopy can be traced back to 8 November 1895 when x-rays. Within months of this discovery, the first fluoroscopes were created. Early fluoroscopes were simply cardboard funnels, open at narrow end for the eyes of the observer, while the wide end was closed with a thin cardboard piece that had been coated on the inside with a layer of fluorescent metal salt. The fluoroscopic image obtained in this way is rather faint. Thomas Edison quickly discovered that calcium tungstate screens produced brighter images and is credited with designing and producing the first commercially available fluoroscope. In its infancy, many incorrectly predicted that the moving images from fluoroscopy would completely replace the still x-ray radiographs, but the superior diagnostic quality of the earlier radiographs prevented this from occurring.

Ignorance of the harmful effects of x-rays resulted in the absence of standard radiation safety procedures which are employed today. Scientists and physicians would often place their hands directly in the x-ray beam resulting in shoe-fitting fluoroscope used by shoe stores in the 1930s-1950s.[1]

Due to the limited light produced from the fluorescent screens, early Red adaptation goggles were developed by Wilhelm Trendelenburg in 1916 to address the problem of dark adaptation of the eyes, previously studied by Antoine Beclere. The resulting red light from the goggles' filtration correctly sensitized the physician's eyes prior to the procedure while still allowing him to receive enough light to function normally.

The development of the radiation exposure.

More modern improvements in screen phosphors, image intensifiers and even flat panel detectors have allowed for increased image quality while minimizing the radiation dose to the patient. Modern fluoroscopes use CsI screens and produce noise-limited images, ensuring that the minimal radiation dose results while still obtaining images of acceptable quality.

Risks

Because fluoroscopy involves the use of x rays, a form of mGy/min. Exposure times vary depending on the procedure being performed, but procedure times up to 75 minutes have been documented. Because of the long length of some procedures, in addition to standard cancer-inducing stochastic radiation effects, deterministic radiation effects have also been observed ranging from mild erythema, equivalent of a sun burn, to more serious burns.

A study has been performed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) entitled Radiation-induced Skin Injuries from Fluoroscopy[2] with an additional publication to minimize further fluoroscopy-induced injuries, Public Health Advisory on Avoidance of Serious X-Ray-Induced skin Injuries to Patients During Fluoroscopically-Guided Procedures[3].

While deterministic radiation effects are a possibility, radiation burns are not typical of standard fluoroscopic procedures. Most procedures sufficiently long in length to produce radiation burns are part of necessary life-saving operations.

Fluoroscope design

The first fluoroscopes consisted of an x-ray source and fluorescent screen between which the patient would be placed. As the x rays pass through the patient, they are attenuated by varying amounts as they interact with the different internal structures of the body, casting a shadow of the structures on the fluorescent screen. Images on the screen are produced as the unattenuated x rays interact with atoms in the screen through the red adaptation goggles.

X-ray Image Intensifiers

The invention of CCD cameras to permit recording of moving images and electronic storage of still images.

Modern image intensifiers no longer use a separate fluorescent screen. Instead, a cesium iodide phosphor is deposited directly on the photocathode of the intensifier tube. On a typical general purpose system, the output image is approximately 10⁵ times brighter than the input image. This brightness gain comprises a flux gain (amplification of photon number) and minification gain (concentration of photons from a large input screen onto a small output screen) each of approximately 100. This level of gain is sufficient that quantum noise, due to the limited number of x-ray photons, is a significant factor limiting image quality.

Image intensifiers are available with input diameters of up to 45 cm, and a resolution of approximately 2-3 line pairs mm^-1.

Flat-panel detectors

The introduction of flat-panel detectors allows for the replacement of the image intensifier in fluoroscope design. Flat panel detectors offer increased sensitivity to X-rays, and therefore have the potential to reduce patient radiation dose. Temporal resolution is also improved over image intensifiers, reducing motion blurring. Contrast ratio is also improved over image intensifiers: flat-panel detectors are linear over a very wide latitude, whereas image intensifiers have a maximum contrast ratio of about 35:1. Spatial resolution is approximately equal, although an image intensifier operating in 'magnification' mode may be slightly better than a flat panel.

Flat panel detectors are considerably more expensive to purchase and repair than image intensifiers, so their uptake is primarily in specialties that require high-speed imaging, e.g., vascular imaging and cardiac catheterization.

Imaging concerns

In addition to spatial blurring factors that plague all x-ray imaging devices, caused by such things as electron range, fluoroscopic systems also experience temporal blurring due to system lag. This temporal blurring has the effect of averaging frames together. While this helps reduce noise in images with stationary objects, it creates motion blurring for moving objects. Temporal blurring also complicates measurements of system performance for fluoroscopic systems.

Common procedures using fluoroscopy

Investigations of the gastrointestinal tract, including enteroclysis.
Orthopaedic surgery to guide fracture reduction and the placement of metalwork.
Angiography of the leg, heart and cerebral vessels.
Placement of a PICC (peripherally inserted central catheter)
Placement of a weighted feeding tube (e.g. Dobhoff) into the duodenum after previous attempts without fluoroscopy have failed.
Urological surgery – particularly in retrograde pyelography.
Implantation of cardiac rhythm management devices (implantable cardioverter defibrillators and cardiac resynchronization devices)

Another common procedure is the modified barium swallow study during which barium-impregnated liquids and solids are ingested by the patient. A radiologist records and, with a speech pathologist, interprets the resulting images to diagnose oral and pharyngeal swallowing dysfunction. Modified barium swallow studies are also used in studying normal swallow function.