Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor



In the field of molecular biology, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are a group of protein) of higher organisms.[2][3]

 

Nomenclature and tissue distribution

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha
Identifiers
Symbol PPARA
Alt. Symbols PPAR
Entrez 5465
HUGO 9232
OMIM 170998
RefSeq NM_001001928
UniProt Q07869
Other data
Locus Chr. 22 q12-q13.1
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma
Identifiers
Symbol PPARG
Entrez 5468
HUGO 9236
OMIM 601487
RefSeq NM_005037
UniProt P37231
Other data
Locus Chr. 3 p25
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta
Identifiers
Symbol PPARD
Entrez 5467
HUGO 9235
OMIM 600409
RefSeq NM_006238
UniProt Q03181
Other data
Locus Chr. 6 p21.2

Three types of PPARs have been identified: alpha, gamma, and delta (beta):[2]

  • α (alpha) - expressed in liver, kidney, heart, muscle, adipose tissue, and others
  • β/δ (beta/delta) - expressed in many tissues but markedly in brain, adipose tissue, and skin
  • γ (gamma) - although transcribed by the same gene, this PPAR through alternative splicing is expressed in three forms:
    • γ1 - expressed in virtually all tissues, including heart, muscle, colon, kidney, pancreas, and spleen
    • γ2 - expressed mainly in adipose tissue (30 amino acids longer)
    • γ3 - expressed in macrophages, large intestine, white adipose tissue.

History

PPARs were originally identified in Xenopus frogs as receptors that induce the proliferation of peroxisomes in cells.[4] The first PPAR (PPARα) was discovered during the search of a molecular target for a group of agents then referred to as peroxisome proliferators, as they increased thiazolidinediones; see below for more details.

After PPARδ (delta) was identified in humans in 1992,[6] it turned out to be closely-related to the PPARβ (beta) previously described during the same year in other animals (Xenopus). The name PPARδ is generally used in the US, whereas the use of the PPARβ denomination has remained in Europe where this receptor was initially discovered in Xenopus.

Physiological function

All PPARs heterodimerize with the retinoid X receptor (RXR) and bind to specific regions on the vitamin D and thyroid hormone).

The function of PPARs is modified by the precise shape of their ligand-binding domain (see below) induced by ligand binding and by a number of corepressor proteins, the presence of which can stimulate or inhibit receptor function, respectively.[7]

Endogenous ligands for the PPARs include free fatty acids and leukotriene B4.

Genetics

The three main forms are transcribed from different genes:

  • PPARα - chromosome 22q12-13.1 (OMIM 170998)
  • PPARβ/δ - chromosome 6p21.2-21.1 (OMIM 600409)
  • PPARγ - chromosome 3p25 (OMIM 601487).

Hereditary disorders of all PPARs have been described, generally leading to a loss in function and concomitant lipodystrophy, gln is associated with obesity. Some other polymorphisms have high incidence in populations with elevated body mass indexes.

Structure

  As with other nuclear receptors, PPARs are modular in structure and contain the following functional domains:

  • (A/B) N-terminal region
  • (C) DBD (DNA-binding domain)
  • (D) flexible hinge region
  • (E) LBD (ligand binding domain)
  • (F) C-terminal region

The DBD contains two repressing the receptor.

Pharmacology and PPAR modulators

PPARα and PPARγ are the molecular targets of a number of marketed drugs. The three main classes of PPAR drugs are:

PPAR-alpha modulators

PPAR-alpha is the main target of triglycerides.

PPAR-gamma modulators

PPAR-gamma is the main target of the drug class of indoles. Known inhibitors include the experimental agent GW-9662.

Balanced-PPAR modulators

A third class of "balanced" or "pan" PPAR ligands, which bind two or more PPAR isoforms, are currently under active investigation for treatment of a larger subset of the symptoms of the metabolic syndrome.[11][12] These include the experimental compounds muraglitazar and tesaglitazar. In addition, there is continuing research and development of new PPAR modulators for additional therapeutic indications.

See also

References

  1. ^ Michalik L, Auwerx J, Berger JP, Chatterjee VK, Glass CK, Gonzalez FJ, Grimaldi PA, Kadowaki T, Lazar MA, O'Rahilly S, Palmer CN, Plutzky J, Reddy JK, Spiegelman BM, Staels B, Wahli W (2006). "International Union of Pharmacology. LXI. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors". Pharmacol. Rev. 58 (4): 726-41. doi:10.1124/pr.58.4.5. PMID 17132851.
  2. ^ a b Berger J, Moller DE (2002). "The mechanisms of action of PPARs". Annu. Rev. Med. 53: 409-35. doi:10.1146/annurev.med.53.082901.104018. PMID 11818483.
  3. ^ Feige JN, Gelman L, Michalik L, Desvergne B, Wahli W (2006). "From molecular action to physiological outputs: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors are nuclear receptors at the crossroads of key cellular functions". Prog. Lipid Res. 45 (2): 120-59. doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2005.12.002. PMID 16476485.
  4. ^ Dreyer C, Krey G, Keller H, Givel F, Helftenbein G, Wahli W (1992). "Control of the peroxisomal beta-oxidation pathway by a novel family of nuclear hormone receptors". Cell 68 (5): 879–87. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(92)90031-7. PMID 1312391.
  5. ^ Issemann I, Green S (1990). "Activation of a member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily by peroxisome proliferators". Nature 347 (6294): 645–50. doi:10.1038/347645a0. PMID 2129546.
  6. ^ Schmidt A, Endo N, Rutledge SJ, Vogel R, Shinar D, Rodan GA (1992). "Identification of a new member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily that is activated by a peroxisome proliferator and fatty acids". Mol. Endocrinol. 6 (10): 1634–41. doi:10.1210/me.6.10.1634. PMID 1333051.
  7. ^ Yu S, Reddy JK (2007). "Transcription coactivators for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors". Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1771 (8): 936–51. doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2007.01.008. PMID 17306620.
  8. ^ Meirhaeghe A, Amouyel P (2004). "Impact of genetic variation of PPARgamma in humans". Mol. Genet. Metab. 83 (1-2): 93–102. doi:10.1016/j.ymgme.2004.08.014. PMID 15464424.
  9. ^ Buzzetti R, Petrone A, Ribaudo MC, Alemanno I, Zavarella S, Mein CA, Maiani F, Tiberti C, Baroni MG, Vecci E, Arca M, Leonetti F, Di Mario U (2004). "The common PPAR-gamma2 Pro12Ala variant is associated with greater insulin sensitivity". Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 12 (12): 1050–4. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201283. PMID 15367918.
  10. ^ Zoete V, Grosdidier A, Michielin O (2007). "Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor structures: ligand specificity, molecular switch and interactions with regulators". Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1771 (8): 915–25. doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2007.01.007. PMID 17317294.
  11. ^ Fiévet C, Fruchart JC, Staels B (2006). "PPARalpha and PPARgamma dual agonists for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome". Current opinion in pharmacology 6 (6): 606–14. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2006.06.009. PMID 16973418.
  12. ^ Balakumar P, Rose M, Ganti SS, Krishan P, Singh M (2007). "PPAR dual agonists: are they opening Pandora's Box?". Pharmacol. Res. 56 (2): 91–8. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2007.03.002. PMID 17428674.
v • d • e
intracellular receptors
(1) Basic domains
(1.1) Basic leucine zipper (bZIP) Activating transcription factor (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) • AP-1 (CREB (1, 3) • GABPA • MAF (B, F, G, K) • NRL • NRF1 • XBP1
(1.2) Basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) ATOH1 • Myogenic regulatory factors (MyoD, Myogenin, MYF5, MYF6) • NEUROD1 • Twist • USF1
(1.3) bHLH-ZIP Myc • MITF • SREBP (1, 2)
(1.6) Basic helix-span-helix (bHSH) AP-2
(2) Zinc finger
DNA-binding domains
(2.1) Nuclear receptor (Cys4) subfamily 1 (Thyroid hormone (α, β), CAR, FXR, DAX1, SHP)
(2.2) Other Cys4 GATA (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
(2.3) Cys2His2 268, 281, 350) • Zbtb7 (7A) • ZBT (16, 17, 33)
(2.4) Cys6 HIVEP1
(3) Helix-turn-helix
domains
(3.1) Homeo domain ARX • 3/4, 6, 7)
(3.2) Paired box 6, 7, 8, 9)
(3.3) winged helix P3)
(3.4) Heat Shock Factors HSF1
(3.5) Tryptophan clusters ELF (4, 5) • Interferon regulatory factors (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) • MYB
(3.6) TEA domain transcriptional enhancer factor 1, 2
(4) β-Scaffold factors with
minor groove contacts
(4.1) Rel homology region NF-κB (NFKB1, NFKB2, REL, RELA, RELB) • NFAT (5, C1, C2, C3, C4)
(4.2) STAT 6)
(4.3) p53 p53
(4.4) MADS box Mef2 (A, B, C, D) • SRF
(4.7) High mobility group HNF (1A, 1B) • LEF1 • SRY • SSRP1
(4.10) Cold-shock domain CSDA
(4.11) Runt CBF (RUNX1, RUNX2, RUNX3)
(0) Other
transcription factors
(0.2) HMGI(Y) HMGA (1, 2)
(0.3) Pocket domain Rb • RBL1 • RBL2
(0.6) Miscellaneous ARID (1A, 1B, 2, 3A, 3B, 4A) • CAP • Rho/Sigma • R-SMAD
 
This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Peroxisome_proliferator-activated_receptor". A list of authors is available in Wikipedia.