Titanium



22 vanadium
-
↑
Ti
↓
Zr
General
number titanium, Ti, 22
transition metals
block d
Appearancesilvery metallic
(1) g·mol−1
Ar] 3d2 4s2
shell 2, 8, 10, 2
Physical properties
PhasekJ·mol−1
Heat capacity(25 °C) 25.060 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 1982 2171 (2403) 2692 3064 3558
Atomic properties
Electronegativity1.54 (Pauling scale)
more) 1st: 658.8 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1309.8 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2652.5 kJ·mol−1
Covalent radius136 pm
Miscellaneous
CAS registry number7440-32-6
Selected isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of titanium
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
44Ti syn 63 y ε - 44Sc
γ 0.07D, 0.08D -
46Ti 8.0% Ti is neutrons
47Ti 7.3% Ti is neutrons
48Ti 73.8% Ti is neutrons
49Ti 5.5% Ti is neutrons
50Ti 5.4% Ti is neutrons
References
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Titanium (Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology.

The element occurs within a number of mineral deposits, principally polypropylene).[1]

The two most useful properties of the metal form are corrosion resistance, and the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any metal.[4] In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some zirconium.

History

Titanium was iron oxide (explaining the attraction to the magnet) and 45.25% of a white metallic oxide he could not identify.[5] Gregor, realizing that the unidentified oxide contained a metal that did not match the properties of any known element, reported his findings to the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall and in the German science journal Crell's Annalen.[8]

  Around the same time, Franz Joseph Muller also produced a similar substance, but could not identify it.[3] The oxide was independently rediscovered in 1795 by German chemist rutile from Hungary.[9] Klaproth found that it contained a new element and named it for the Titans of Greek mythology.[8] After hearing about Gregor's earlier discovery, he obtained a sample of manaccanite and confirmed it contained titanium.

The processes required to extract titanium from its various ores are laborious and costly; it is not possible to reduce in the normal manner, by heating in the presence of FFC Cambridge, e.g.), the Kroll process is still used for commercial production.[3][2]

 

Titanium of very high purity was made in small quantities when Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer discovered the iodide, or crystal bar, process in 1925, by reacting with iodine and decomposing the formed vapors over a hot filament to pure metal.[10]

In the 1950s and 1960s the Soviet Union pioneered the use of titanium in military and submarine applications (Alfa Class and Mike Class)[11] as part of programs related to the Cold War.[12] Starting in the early 1950s, Titanium began to be used extensively for military aviation purposes, particularly in high-performance jets, starting with aircraft such as the F100 Super Sabre and Lockheed A-12.

In the USA, the Department of Defense realized the strategic importance of the metal[13] and supported early efforts of commercialization.[14] Throughout the period of the Cold War, titanium was considered a Strategic Material by the U.S. government, and a large stockpile of titanium sponge was maintained by the Defense National Stockpile Center, which was finally depleted in 2005.[15] Today, the world's largest producer, Russian-based VSMPO-Avisma, is estimated to account for about 29% of the world market share.[16]

In 2006, the U.S. Defense Agency awarded $5.7 million to a two-company consortium to develop a new process for making titanium metal powder. Under heat and pressure, the powder can be used to create strong, lightweight items ranging from armor plating to components for the aerospace, transportation and chemical processing industries.[17]

Characteristics

Physical

A refractory metal.

Commercial (99.2% pure) grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 63,000 psi (434 MPa), equal to that of some steel alloys, but are 45% lighter.[5] Titanium is 60% heavier than aluminium, but more than twice as strong[5] as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys (e.g., Beta C) achieve tensile strengths of over 200,000 psi (1380 MPa).[19] However, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C (800 °F).[5]

It is fairly hard (although not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel) and is difficult to machine, as it will gall if sharp tools and proper cooling methods are not used. Like those made from steel, titanium structures have a fatigue limit which guarantees longevity in some applications.[20]

The metal is a dimorphic allotrope with the hexagonal alpha form changing into the body-centered cubic (lattice) beta form at 882 °C (1,619 °F).[5] The heat capacity of the alpha form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls and remains fairly constant for the beta form regardless of temperature.[5]

Chemical

The most noted chemical property of titanium is its excellent resistance to soluble in water but is soluble in concentrated acids.[21]

While the following pourbaix diagram shows that titanium is thermodynamically a very reactive metal, it is slow to react with water and air.

 

This metal forms a oxide coating (leading to increased corrosion-resistance) when exposed to elevated temperatures in air, but at room temperatures it resists tarnishing.[18] When it first forms, this protective layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to slowly grow; reaching a thickness of 25 nm in four years.[8]

Titanium burns when heated in air 610 °C (1,130 °F) or higher, forming titanium dioxide.[6] It is also one of the few elements that burns in pure thermal conductivity.[18]

Experiments have shown that natural titanium becomes hydrogen.[3]

Occurrence

Producer Thousands of tons % of total
Australia 1291.0 30.6
South Africa 850.0 20.1
Canada 767.0 18.2
Norway 382.9 9.1
Ukraine 357.0 8.5
Other countries 573.1 13.6
Total world 4221.0 100.1
Source: 2003 production of titanium dioxide.[24]
Due to rounding, values do not sum to 100%.

Titanium is always bonded to other elements in nature. It is the ninth-most abundant element in the Earth's crust (0.63% by mass)[5] and the seventh-most abundant metal. It is present in most sediments derived from them (as well as in living things and natural bodies of water).[18][2] In fact, of the 801 types of igneous rocks analyzed by the United States Geological Survey, 784 contained titanium.[5] Its proportion in soils is approximately 0.5 to 1.5%.[5]

It is widely distributed and occurs primarily in the iron ores. Of these minerals, only rutile and ilmenite have any economic importance, yet even they are difficult to find in high concentrations.[3] Significant titanium-bearing ilmenite deposits exist in western Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, and Ukraine. Large quantities of rutile are also mined in North America and South Africa and help contribute to the annual production of 90,000 tonnes of the metal and 4.3 million tonnes of titanium dioxide. Total known reserves of titanium are estimated to exceed 600 million tonnes.[8]

Titanium is contained in meteorites and has been detected in the Rocks brought back from the moon during the Apollo 17 mission are composed of 12.1% TiO2.[2] It is also found in coal ash, plants, and even the human body.

Production and fabrication

 

The processing of titanium metal occurs in 4 major steps:[25] reduction of titanium ore into "sponge", a porous form; melting of sponge, or sponge plus a master alloy to form an ingot; primary fabrication, where an ingot is converted into general mill products such as billet, bar, plate, sheet, strip and tube; and secondary fabrication of finished shapes from mill products.

Because the metal reacts with oxygen at high temperatures it cannot be produced by argon atmosphere.[6]

A more recently developed method, the steel.

Common titanium rutile with manganese or manganese oxides) are reduced.[23]

2CO
MgCl2 + Ti

About 50 grades of titanium and titanium alloys are designated and currently used, although only a couple of dozen are readily available commercially.[27] The creep resistance, resistance to corrosion from specific media, or a combination thereof.[28]

The grades covered by ASTM and other alloys are also produced to meet Aerospace and Military specifications (SAE-AMS, MIL-T), ISO standards, and country-specific specifications, as well as proprietary end-user specifications for aerospace, military, medical and industrial applications.[29]

In terms of fabrication, all welding of titanium must be done in an inert atmosphere of hydrogen.[5] Contamination will cause a variety of conditions, such as embrittlement, which will reduce the integrity of the assembly welds and lead to joint failure. Commercially pure flat product (sheet, plate) can be formed readily, but processing must take into account the fact that the metal has a 'memory' and tends to spring back. This is especially true of certain high-strength alloys.[30][31] The metal can be machined using the same equipment and via the same processes as stainless steel.[5]

Applications

  Titanium is used in molybdenum, and with other metals.[32] Applications for titanium mill products (sheet, plate, bar, wire, forgings, castings) can be found in industrial, aerospace, recreational and emerging markets. Powdered titanium is used in pyrotechnics as a source of bright-burning particles.

Pigments, Additives and Coatings

  About 95% of titanium ore extracted from the Earth is destined for refinement into gemstones, as an optical opacifier in paper,[34] and a strengthening agent in graphite composite fishing rods and golf clubs.

TiO2 powder is chemically inert, resists fading in sunlight, and is very opaque: this allows it to impart a pure and brilliant white color to the brown or gray chemicals that form the majority of household plastics.[3] In nature, this compound is found in the rutile.[18] Paint made with titanium dioxide does well in severe temperatures, is somewhat self-cleaning, and stands up to marine environments.[3] Pure titanium dioxide has a very high diamond.[2]

Recently, it has been put to use in air purifiers (as a filter coating), or in film used to coat windows on buildings which when exposed to UV light (either solar or man-made) and moisture in the air produces reactive redox species like hydroxyl radicals that can purify the air or keep window surfaces clean.[35]

Aerospace and Marine

  Due to their high alloys are used in aircraft, armor plating, naval ships, spacecraft and missiles.[3][2] For these applications titanium alloyed with aluminum, vanadium and other elements are used for a variety of components including critical structural parts, fire walls, landing gear, exhaust ducts (helicopters) and hydraulic systems. In fact, about two thirds of all titanium metal produced is used in aircraft engines and frames.[20] The SR-71 "Blackbird" was one of the first aircraft to make extensive use of titanium within its structure, paving the way for its use in modern fighter and commercial aircraft. An estimated 58 tons are used in the Boeing 777, 43 in the 747, 18 in the 737, 24 in the Airbus A340, 17 in the A330 and 12 in the A320. The A380 may use 77 tons, including about 11 tons in the engines.[36] In engine applications, titanium is used for rotors, compressor blades, hydraulic system components and nacelles. The titanium 6AL-4V alloy accounts for almost 50% of all alloys used in aircraft applications.[37]

Due to its high corrosion resistance to heat exchangers of desalination plants;[2] in heater-chillers for salt water aquariums, fishing line and leader and for divers' knives. Titanium is used to manufacture the housings and other components of ocean-deployed surveillance and monitoring devices for scientific and military use.

Industrial

Welded titanium pipe and process equipment (heat exchangers, tanks, process vessels, valves) are used in the chemical and petrochemical industries primarily for corrosion resistance. Specific alloys are used in downhole and hydrometallurgy applications due to their high strength (titanium Beta C) or corrosion resistance or combination of both. The pulp and paper industry uses titanium in process equipment exposed to corrosive media such as sodium hypochlorite or wet chlorine gas (in the bleachery).[38] Other applications include: ultrasonic welding, wave soldering,[39] and sputtering targets.[40]

Consumer and Architectural

 

Titanium metal is used in automotive applications, particularly in automobile or motorcycle racing, where weight reduction is critical while maintaining high strength and rigidity. The metal is generally too expensive to make it marketable to the general consumer market, other than high end products. Late model Corvettes have been available with titanium exhausts,[41] and racing bikes are frequently outfitted with titanium mufflers. Titanium alloy is used for the connecting rods in the engine of the 2006 and later Corvette Z06. Other automotive uses include piston rods and hardware (bolts, nuts, etc.).

The Parker Pen Company used titanium to form the T-1 fountain pen, later expanded to T-1 ball pens and rollerballs. The T-1 fountain pen was introduced in 1970 and the T-1 rollerball and ball pen in 1971. Production was stopped in 1972 due to the high cost of manufacturing titanium. Parker T-1's are prized for their collectibility by collectors.

Hammer heads made of titanium were introduced in 1999. Their light weight allows for a longer handle which increases the velocity of the head and results in more energy being delivered to the nail, all while decreasing arm fatigue. Titanium also decreases the shock transferred to the user because a titanium head generates about 3% recoil compared to a steel head that generates about 27%.

Titanium is used in many sporting goods; tennis rackets, golf clubs, lacrosse stick shafts; cricket, hockey, lacrosse, and football helmet grills, and bicycle frames and components. Titanium alloys are also used in spectacle frames. This results in a rather expensive, but highly durable and long lasting frame which is light in weight and causes no skin allergies. Many backpackers use titanium equipment, including cookware, eating utensils, lanterns and tent stakes. Though slightly more expensive than traditional steel or aluminium alternatives, these titanium products can be significantly lighter without compromising strength. Titanium is also favored for use by farriers, since it is lighter and more durable than steel when formed into horseshoes. Titanium horseshoes can be found in horse racing, and are used by many Amish horse owners, who rely entirely on horse-drawn carriages for transportation. Titanium has even become somewhat popular for use in jewelry, such as rings and body piercings.

Because of its durability, titanium has become more popular for designer jewelry in recent years, whereas until recently the metal was too difficult to work into the intricate shapes with the precision necessary for fine jewelry. Today, titanium rings -- including engagement rings and wedding bands -- are one of the fastest growing segments of the titanium jewelry market, in part due to the ability of the metal to be grooved, inlaid, and carved without losing strength. Some titanium jewelry also incorporates diamonds or other gemstones, typically in close settings such as bezels, flush, or tension designs. Its inertness again makes it a good choice for those with allergies or those who will be wearing the jewelry in environments such as swimming pools.

Titanium has occasionally been used in architectural applications: the 120 foot (40 m) memorial to Yuri Gagarin, the first man to travel in space, in Moscow, is made of titanium for the metal's attractive color and association with rocketry.[42] The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Cerritos Millennium Library were the first buildings in Europe and North America, respectively, to be sheathed in titanium panels. Other construction uses of titanium sheathing include the Frederic C. Hamilton Building in (Denver, Colorado).[43]

Due to its superior strength and light weight when compared to other metals traditionally used in firearms (stainless steel, and aluminum), and advances in metal-working techniques, the use of titanium has become more widespread in the manufacture of firearms. Primary uses include pistol frames and revolver cylinders.

Medical

    Because it is biocompatible (non-toxic and is not rejected by the body), titanium is used in a gamut of medical applications including surgical implements and implants, such as hip balls and sockets (joint replacement) that can stay in place for up to 20 years. Titanium has the inherent property to osseointegrate, enabling use in dental implants that can remain in place for over 30 years. This property is also useful for orthopedic implant applications.[8]


Since titanium is non-plasma arc which removes the surface atoms, exposing fresh titanium that is instantly oxidized.[8] Titanium is also used for the surgical instruments used in image-guided surgery, as well as wheelchairs, crutches, and any other product where high strength and low weight are important.

Its inertness and ability to be attractively colored makes it a popular metal for use in body piercing.[44] Titanium may be anodized to produce various colors.[45] A number of artists work with titanium to produce artworks such as sculptures, decorative objects and furniture.

Compounds

The +4 covalent bonding.

fabrics.[6]

  barrier metal in semiconductor fabrication.

reducing agent.

superalloys, and high-temperature electrical wiring and coatings) and titanium carbide (found in high-temperature cutting tools and coatings).[3]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of titanium

Naturally occurring titanium is composed of 5 stable radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 33 seconds and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than half a second.[7]

The isotopes of titanium range in vanadium) isotopes.[7]

Precautions

  Titanium is non-toxic even in large doses and does not play any natural role inside the human body. An estimated 0.8 milligrams of titanium is ingested by humans each day but most passes through without being absorbed. It does, however, have a tendency to nettle contain up to 80 ppm.[8]

As a powder or in the form of metal shavings, titanium metal poses a significant fire hazard and, when heated in carbon dioxide-based methods to extinguish fires are ineffective on burning titanium; Class D dry powder fire fighting agents must be used instead.[3]

Even bulk titanium metal is susceptible to fire, when it is heated to its melting point. A number of titanium fires occur during breaking down devices containing titanium parts with cutting torches.

When used in the production or handling of chlorine, care must be taken to use titanium only in locations where it will not be exposed to dry chlorine gas which can result in a titanium/chlorine fire. Care must be taken even when titanium is used in wet chlorine due to possible unexpected drying brought about by extreme weather conditions.

Titanium can catch fire when a fresh, non-oxidized surface gets in contact with liquid oxygen. Such surfaces can appear when the oxidized surface is struck with a hard object, or when a mechanical strain causes the emergence of a crack. This poses the possible limitation for its use in liquid oxygen systems, such as those found in the aerospace industry.

pyrophoric black crystals, and the tetrachloride is a volatile fuming liquid. All of titanium's chlorides are corrosive.

See also

References

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  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Titanium. Los Alamos National Laboratory (2004). Retrieved on 2006-12-29.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Krebs, Robert E. (2006). The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide (2nd edition). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313334382. 
  4. ^ Matthew J. Donachie, Jr. (1988). TITANIUM: A Technical Guide. Metals Park, OH: ASM International, p.11. ISBN 0871703092. 
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Barksdale, Jelks (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. Skokie, Illinois: Reinhold Book Corporation, 732-38 "Titanium". LCCCN 68-29938. 
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h "Titanium". Columbia Encyclopedia (6th edition). (2000 – 2006). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0787650153. 
  7. ^ a b c Barbalace, Kenneth L. (2006). Periodic Table of Elements: Ti - Titanium. Retrieved on 2006-12-26.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 451 – 53. ISBN 0-19-850341-5. 
  9. ^ Origins of the Element Names: Names Derived from Mythology or Superstition
  10. ^ van Arkel, A. E.; de Boer, J. H. (1925). "Preparation of pure titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and thorium metal". Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem. 148: 345 – 50.
  11. ^ Yanko, Eugene; Omsk VTTV Arms Exhibition and Military Parade JSC (2006). Submarines: general information. Retrieved on 2006-12-26.
  12. ^ Stainless Steel World. "VSMPO Stronger Than Ever", KCI Publishing B.V., July/August 2001, pp. 16–19. Retrieved on 2007-01-02. 
  13. ^ NATIONAL MATERIALS ADVISORY BOARD, Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems (CETS), National Research Council (1983). Titanium: Past, Present, and Future. Washington, DC: national Academy Press, R9. NMAB-392. 
  14. ^ Titanium Metals Corporation. Answers.com. Encyclopedia of Company Histories,. Answers Corporation (2006). Retrieved on 2007-01-02.
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  • Flower, Harvey M. (2000). "Materials Science: A moving oxygen story". Nature 407: 305.
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  • Book of Titanium, Ehsan Ghandhari (2007)
 
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