Xenon



54 caesium
Rn
General
number xenon, Xe, 54
noble gases
block p
Appearancecolorless gas
Standard atomic weight 131.293(6) g·mol−1
Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p6
shell 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
Physical properties
PhasekJ·mol−1
Heat capacity(100 kPa, 25 °C) 20.786 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
P/Pa 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T/K 83 92 103 117 137 165
Atomic properties
Electronegativity2.6 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 1170.4 kJ/mol
2nd: 2046.4 kJ/mol
3rd: 3099.4 kJ/mol
Atomic radius (calc.)108 pm
Van der Waals radius216 pm
Miscellaneous
CAS registry number7440-63-3
Selected isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of xenon
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
124Xe 0.095% Xe is neutrons
125Xe syn 16.9 h ε 1.652 125I
126Xe 0.089% Xe is neutrons
127Xe syn 36.345 d ε 0.662 127I
128Xe 1.91% Xe is neutrons
129Xe 26.4% Xe is neutrons
130Xe 4.07% Xe is neutrons
131Xe 21.2% Xe is neutrons
132Xe 26.9% Xe is neutrons
133Xe syn 5.247 d β− 0.427 133Cs
134Xe 10.4% Xe is neutrons
135Xe syn 9.14 h β− 1.16 135Cs
136Xe 8.86% Xe is neutrons
References
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Xenon (noble gas compound to be synthesized.[2][3][4]

Naturally occurring xenon is made of nuclear fission and acts as a neutron absorber in nuclear reactors.[6]

Xenon is used in propellant for ion thrusters in spacecraft.[13]

History

Xenon was discovered in England by neon. They found it in the residue left over from evaporating components of liquid air.[14][15] Ramsay suggested the name xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξένον [xenon], neuter singular form of ξένος [xenos], meaning foreign, strange, or host.[16][17] In 1902, Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earth's atmosphere as one part in 20 million.[18]

During the 1930s, the engineer Harold Edgerton began exploring strobe light technology for high-speed photography. This led him to the invention of the xenon flash lamp, in which light is generated by sending a brief electrical current through a tube filled with xenon gas. In 1934, Edgerton was able to generate flashes as brief as one microsecond with this method.[7][19][20]

Albert R. Behnke Jr. began exploring the causes of "drunkenness" in deep-sea divers in 1939. He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects, and discovered that this caused the divers to perceive a change in depth. From his results, he deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic. Although Lazharev, in Russia, apparently studied xenon anesthesia in 1941, the first published report confirming xenon anesthesia was in 1946 by J. H. Lawrence, who experimented on mice. Xenon was first used as a surgical anesthetic in 1951 by Stuart C. Cullen, who successfully operated on two patients.[21]

In 1960, the physicist John H. Reynolds discovered that certain meteorites contained an isotopic anomaly in the form of an overabundance of xenon-129. He inferred that this was a iodine-129. As the half-life of 129I is 16 million years, this demonstrated that the meteorites were formed during the early history of the Solar System, as the 129I isotope was likely generated before the Solar System was formed.[22][23]

Xenon and the other noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely chemically inert and not able to form radon fluoride.[33]

Occurrence

Xenon is a neutron irradiation of fissionable material within nuclear reactors.[2]

Xenon is obtained commercially as a byproduct of the separation of air into krypton and xenon via distillation.[35][36] Extraction of a liter of xenon from the atmosphere requires 220 watt-hours of energy.[37] Worldwide production of xenon in 1998 was estimated at 5,000–7,000 m3.[38] Due to its low abundance, xenon is much more expensive than the lighter noble gases—approximate prices for the purchase of small quantities in Europe in 1999 were 10 €/L for xenon, 1 €/L for krypton, and 0.20 €/L for neon.[38]

Xenon is relatively rare in the Sun's atmosphere, on Earth, and in the asteroids and comets. The atmosphere of Mars shows a similar xenon abundance to that of Earth: 0.08 parts per million.[39] However, Mars shows a higher proportion of 129Xe than the Earth or the Sun. As this isotope is generated by radioactive decay, the result may indicate that Mars lost most of its primordial atmosphere, possibly within the first 100 million years after the planet was formed.[40][41] By contrast, the planet Jupiter has an unusually high abundance of xenon in its atmosphere; about 2.6 times as much as the Sun.[42] This high abundance remains unexplained, but may have been caused by an early and rapid buildup of planetesimals—small, subplanetary bodies—before the presolar disk began to heat up.[43] (Otherwise, xenon would not have been trapped in the planetesimal ices.) Within the Solar System, the quartz, hence reducing the outgassing of xenon into the atmosphere.[45]

Unlike the lower mass noble gases, the normal stellar nucleosynthesis process inside a star does not form xenon. Elements more massive than iron-56 have a net energy cost to produce through fusion, so there is no energy gain for a star to create xenon.[46] Instead, many isotopes of xenon are formed during supernova explosions.[47]

Characteristics

  An atom of xenon is defined as having a nucleus with 54 pressure, xenon has been forced into a metallic phase.[50]

Xenon is a member of the zero-oxidized by powerful oxidizing agents, and many xenon compounds have been synthesized.

In a gas-filled tube, xenon emits a emission lines that span the visual spectrum,[52] but the most intense lines occur in the region of blue light, which produces the coloration.[53]

Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of xenon

Naturally occurring xenon is made of nine double beta decay, but this has never been observed so they are considered to be stable.[54][55] Besides these stable forms, there are over 40 unstable isotopes that have been studied. 129Xe is produced by plutonium.[56]

The artificial isotope nuclear fuel).[58]

Under adverse conditions, relatively high concentrations of radioactive xenon isotopes may be found emanating from nuclear reactors due to the release of fission products from cracked fuel rods,[59] or fissioning of uranium in cooling water.[60]

Because xenon is a tracer for two parent isotopes, xenon isotope ratios in meteorites are a powerful tool for studying the formation of the solar system. The iodine-xenon method of carbon dioxide well gases from New Mexico was believed to be from the decay of mantle-derived gases soon after Earth's formation.[61][56]

Compounds

See also: Category:Xenon_compounds

  carbon), they are often part of a molecule containing fluorine or oxygen.[64] Some compounds of xenon are colored but most are colorless.[62]

In 1995, a group of scientists at the University of Helsinki in Finland (M. Räsänen and co-workers) announced the preparation of xenon dihydride (HXeH), and later xenon hydride-hydroxide (HXeOH), hydroxenoacetylene (HXeCCH), and other Xe-containing molecules. [65][66] Deuterated molecules, HXeOD and DXeOH, have also been produced.[67]  

As well as compounds where xenon forms a clathrate hydrates can occur naturally under conditions of high pressure, such as in Lake Vostok underneath the Antarctic ice sheet.[70] Clathrate formation can be used to fractionally distill xenon, argon and krypton.[71] Xenon can also form chemical shift of the xenon atom to its environment. However, the xenon atom also has an electronic influence on the reactivity of the fullerene.[72]

Applications

Although xenon is rare and relatively expensive to extract from the Earth's atmosphere, it still has a number of applications.

Illumination and optics

Gas-discharge lamps

  Xenon is used in light-emitting devices called laser, invented in 1960, was pumped by a xenon flash lamp,[11] and lasers used to power inertial confinement fusion are also pumped by xenon flash lamps.[75]

  Continuous, short-arc, high pressure xenon arc lamps have a color temperature closely approximating noon sunlight and are used in solar simulators. That is, the chromaticity of these lamps closely approximates a heated black-body radiator that has a temperature close to that observed from the Sun. After they were first introduced during the 1940s, these lamps began replacing the shorter-lived carbon arc lamps in movie projectors.[8] They are employed in typical 35mm and IMAX film projection systems, automotive HID headlights and other specialized uses. These arc lamps are an excellent source of short wavelength ultraviolet radiation and they have intense emissions in the near infrared, which is used in some night vision systems.

The individual cells in a plasma display use a mixture of xenon and neon that is converted into a phosphor coating on the front of the display.[76][77]

Xenon is used as a "starter gas" in breakdown voltage of the gas to be relatively low in the cold state, which allows the lamp to be more easily started.[78]

Lasers

In 1962, a group of researchers at Bell Laboratories discovered laser action in xenon,[79] and later found that the laser gain was improved by adding ultraviolet wavelength of 176 nm.[10] Xenon chloride and xenon fluoride have also been used in excimer (or, more accurately, exciplex) lasers.[82] The xenon chloride excimer laser has been employed, for example, in certain dermatological uses.[83]

Anesthesia

Xenon has been used as a lipid membrane.[87]

Xenon has a minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of 0.63, making it 50% more potent than N2O as an anesthetic. Thus it can be used in concentrations with oxygen that have a lower risk of environmentally friendly. Because of the high cost of xenon, however, economic application will require a closed system so that the gas can be recycled, with the gas being appropriately filtered for contaminants between uses.[37]

Medical imaging

single photon emission computed tomography. 133Xe has also been used to measure blood flow.[88][89][90]

Nuclei of only two of the stable hyperpolarization process (such as Spin-Exchange optical pumping described above) renders the 129Xe isotope much more detectable via magnetic resonance imaging and has been used for studies of the lungs and other tissues. It can be used, for example, to trace the flow of gases within the lungs.[95][96]

Other

In nuclear energy applications, xenon is used in bubble chambers,[97] probes, and in other areas where a high molecular weight and inert nature is desirable.   Liquid xenon is being used as a medium for detecting hypothetical weakly interactive massive particles, or WIMPs. When a WIMP collides with a xenon nucleus, it should, theoretically, strip an electron and create a primary cosmic rays.[12] However, the XENON experiment at the Gran Sasso National Laboratory in Italy has thus far failed to find any confirmed WIMPs. Even if no WIMPs are detected though, the experiment will serve to constrain the properties of dark matter and some physics models.[98] The current detector at this facility is five times as sensitive as other instruments world-wide, and the sensitivity will be increased by an order of magnitude in 2008.[99]

Xenon is the preferred fuel for ion propulsion of spacecraft because of its low SMART-1 spacecraft[13] and for the three ion propulsion engines on NASA's Dawn Spacecraft.[101]

Chemically, the perxenate compounds are used as phase problem.[104][105]

Precautions

Xenon gas can be safely kept in normal sealed glass or oxidative properties.[106]

At 169 m/s, the sulfur hexafluoride, which is similar to xenon in molecular weight (146 versus 131), is generally used in this stunt, although it too is an asphyxiant.[108]

It is possible to safely breathe heavy gases such as xenon or sulfur hexafluoride when they include a 20% mixture of oxygen. The lungs mix the gases very effectively and rapidly, so that the heavy gases are purged along with the oxygen and do not accumulate at the bottom of the lungs.[109] There is, however, a danger associated with any heavy gas in large quantities: it may sit invisibly in a container, and if a person enters a container filled with an odorless, colorless gas, they may find themselves breathing it unknowingly. Xenon is rarely used in large enough quantities for this to be a concern, though the potential for danger exists any time a tank or container of xenon is kept in an unventilated space.[110]

See also

References

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